Absence Of In Depth Studies On Cultural Competence - Free Essay Example

In this global society, Culture has gradually seeped into our everyday lives where it is almost impossible to avoid culture. Companies like multi-national organizations are required to apprehend every aspect of the local national culture which they are operating or selling their products in. David Harrison has highlighted that there are 3 key trends that promise to shape and change the economic landscape well in the 21st century; (1) continued globalization of business (2) enhanced information technology and (3) increasingly diverse workplace (Harrison, 2000). This further explained the importance of cross cultural awareness between the national level, industrial level, organizational level and individual level. Statistics have shown that 51 out of the 100 largest economies in the world are corporations and the top 500 multi-national organizations justify for 70% of the worldwide trade and this phenomenon have been stealthily increasing throughout the years (WTO, 2003). With the increasing encouragement for globalization in business ventures, companies can now search for cheaper and better raw materials globally. Nonetheless, by venturing out into the international borders, it is unavoidable that one needs to interact with the diverse culture of different nations. A case study have shown that the lack of cross cultural awareness have caused Tiz Razor, a manufacturing firm operating with British license to encounter cultural challenges in the Qatari Market. Tiz Razor in local languages would mean sharp and they have enjoyed good customer acceptance with its sharp image. In the mid 1980s, Tiz Razor was encouraged to mount an export drive due to the government foreign currency deficit (consequences of war with Iraq). The next target segment would be Qatar the next richest and nearest country from Iran. Qatar is a part of the United Arab Emirates which uses Arabic alphabet. However, the products were not very well received with the customers. It is later known that Tiz, the Persian brand name in Arabic slang is referred to Passing wind( Tevfik Dalgic and Ruud Heijblom, 1996). The above example has further proved and emphasizes the importance of cross cultural awareness between the different nations. Despite the escalating volume of academic research on cultural issues in international business, firms appear not to be doing sufficient to prepare their managers for the international business environment (Apud et al. 2006). Cultural differences, while difficult to observe and measure, are obviously very important (Pan kaj Ghemewat, 2010). According to Pankaj Ghemewat, culture is defined as a set of shared values, assumptions and beliefs that are learnt through membership in a group, and that influence the attitudes and behaviors of group members which Geert hofstede defines as a process of collective programming of the mind. It is further explained that some cultures put more emphasis on universal commitments (like honesty) and others put more weight on loyalty to particular people and relationships. Given the apparent importance of cross cultural awareness in this global market, literature reviews have shown 4 surprising results (James P. Johnson, Tomasz Lenartowicz and Salvador Apud, 2006) that there are a: Lack of agreement of what constitutes to cultural competence. Absence of in-depth studies on cultural competence. Studies on cultural competence in International Business tend to ignore the larger environment which operation managers operate in. Broad coverage of cultural compete nce only in US Research Aim To investigate and understand the effects of cultures on the business environment Research Objectives To understand the cultural differences between Western and Eastern To explore the possibility of cultural differences affecting business interest To identify the determinants that cause conflicts between different nationalities To investigate different methods of minimizing cultural conflicts Research Process Philosophy of research The different philosophy of Positivism, Interpretive and Critical realism, the most appropriate strategy in researching cultural differences is through critical realism. Realism is based on the belief that a reality exists that is independent of human thoughts and beliefs. It can also be seen as a large scale social forces and processes that affect people without their necessarily being aware of the existence of such influence on their interpretation and behavior (Mark Saunders et. al, 2003, Pg 84,85). Edgar Schein definition of culture could be applied based on that deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization that operate unconsciously and define in a basic taken for granted fashion an organizations view of its self and its environment. (Edgar Schein,1985). Given cultures ambiguous nature, the end results are subjective, undefined and determined by external forces while interpretivisim acknowledge peoples experience following by how things behave(Laing 1967:53) Approaches A deductive approach would not be chosen as it is time-consuming. In the social and economic sciences environment, extreme deductive would lead to an endless rejection of theories because simply none of them is able to grasp the full complexity of the system described(Koen.P et. Al, 2007). In contrary, an inductive approach to research culture would be appropriate in such situations; as it is the process in which you would collect data and develop theory as a result of your data analysis(Mark saunders et al, 2003, pg85-87). Instead of testing the theories, the paper would focus on building on to theories such as the 6 dimensions of culture by Geert Hofstede and the 3 levels of culture by Edgar Schein. Easterby-smith et al. (2002) suggest 3 reasons to the usage of an inductive approach; (1) informed decision making can be made about the research design which is more than simply the methods by which data are collected and analyzed. (2) Providing inspiration of which research appro aches would work best in the research process and (3) the knowledge of the different research traditions would solve your constraint on adapting to the research design to cater for constraints. Research Methodologies Case study One of the best methodologies to be used would be case studies; it is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence (Robson 2002:178). Case studies introduce the concept for generating and testing theory, providing a strategic management team with ground breaking insights (Penrose, 1960; Chandler, 1962; Pettigrew, 1973; Burgelman, 1983). It is argued that case studies are usually carried out in close interaction with practitioners, dealing with real management situations which could represent a methodology that is ideally suited to creating managerially relevant knowledge(Amabile et al., 2001; Leonard Barton, 1990). This has fulfilled the research objectives of comparing between different nationalities using real life examples that underline theories and discovering the key to minimize cultural conflicts. Interviews The use of intervi ews would be necessary to find out the determinants of the conflicts. Discussing about conflicts may be sensitive for some individual, thus an interview with them would be appropriate. Individual interview can often provide in-depth context, stories and discussion related to one or more topics (WBI evaluation, 2007). It is important for the interviewer to find a peaceful environment where the Interviewer can ask for elaboration or explanation with follow up questions(WBI evaluation, 2007). The respondent may also appreciate the additional personal attention that the interviewer can offer in opposed to a survey or focus group(WBI evaluation, 2007). Limitations Despite the validity of case studies, Yin(1984) have argued that there are 3 disadvantages; (1) case studies often lack of rigor as too many times, the case study investigator has been sloppy, and has allowed equivocal evidence or biased views to influence the direction of the findings and conclusions (2) Case studies pro vide very little basis for scientific generalization since they use a small number of subjects, some conducted with only one subject. (3) Case studies are often labeled as being too long, difficult to conduct and producing a massive amount of documentation (Yin, 1984) . Yin (1993) considered case methodology microscopic because of the limited sampling cases that may lead to an inaccuracy of data. Likewise for interviews, due to the complexity and great detail involved, it is usually time-consuming as each respondent would require 30-45 minutes to answer those questions, in addition of organizing and comparing the data would take up even more time. There is also an underlying question in terms of validity as researcher would not be able to know if the respondents are lying. In the case of interviewing different nationalities, there is a possibility that there is a miscommunication due to language barriers between the different countries. Operation of Methods Case Study The first step in deciding which case study to use is determined by the countries which should be explored. Yin(1984) has proposed to use the 6 step in using case study: Determine and define the research questions Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques Prepare to collect the data Collect data in the field Evaluate and analyze the data Prepare the report As mentioned in the research objective to understand the significant cultural differences between the western and the eastern, 2 case studies were chosen; Danone Vs Wahaha and Nissan Vs Renault . The 2 case studies showcased France which belongs to the western culture, China and Japan which belongs to the eastern culture. A framework of Geert Hofstedes 6 cultural dimensions will be used to differentiate and compare distinctly between both very extreme opposite cultures. Beyond the case studies, Edgar Scheins 3 levels of culture can be used to analyze the different ele ments of culture. Interview Referring back to the research objective, exploring how cultural difference between the eastern and western culture could cause conflicts and whether the diversity of culture creates a rife of creativity and efficiency that results in better business interest for the company. In this interview process, the sample size would include 4 sales and marketing personnel aged ranged 25-30 each from the western and eastern country. Argumentatively, the sales marketing personnel could provide abounding relevant information; since they are the ones that formulate creativity and profits for the company. Scheduling a timing slot for a Skype interview is required as respondents do not reside in the same local country. During the process, the session will be divided in accordance of scheduling the first 4 western employees for interview in the 1st week and the following 4 eastern employees in the next week. Scheduling interviews in different weeks allows time to organize and analyze the data given. An example of the interview question will be provided in the appendix below. (Exhibit 1.1) Analysis of Data (Coding) In the analytical process, Open coding would be used which is essentially the first stage of the process of qualitative analysis (Mark. P, et al, 2003, pg 399,340). This is where the data is collected and grouped into conceptual units followed by being given a label for each unit. The same label would also be given if similarities of data were found. The emphasis in this grounded theory approach will be used to derive meanings from the subjects and settings being studied In the case studies provided, the researcher needs to identify and label data which is important, followed by finding similarities of data between both cases of Danone Vs Wahaha and Nissan vs Renault. Conjointly, the interview data from each of the western side and the eastern side, similarities of the data should be found and labelled accordingly. The process of looking for relationship between the categories of data that have emerged from open coding could be explained as axial coding. Axial coding indicates t he process of the theoretical development as they are rearranged into a hierarchical form with the emergence of subcategories Finally, the process would go through Selective coding where there is already a developed a number of principal categories and related subcategories. This is when identification of one most important subcategory as a core category and integrate them into the research in order to develop a grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin 1988). Conclusion Culture has always been a essential element yet sensitive topic; riots may occur as a result of not handling the cultural differences well. A potentially successful business ventures may backslide where there is an absence of cross cultural awareness. With the advancement of globalization seen worldwide, it is even much more important for companies to grasp the understanding of each different national culture. Even with mounting volume of research about cultural differences, cultural conflicts still remain in todays society. Further research should be performed to know much more in depth about the ambiguous nature of culture. In order to fulfil my research objectives, 2 main methodologies were used. Case studies are used to compare the differences between the western eastern while Interviews are used to identify the determinants of conflicts and ascertain methods to solve cultural conflicts. After the data is collected, it will have to go through the process of open coding in o rder to analyze the data given. With a good analysis of data, this will allow us to build on the theory and let us gain a further insight of culture which is essential for businesses in the future. By grasping culture into our understanding, we may be much more prepared for what the future may bring us.

Cigarette Smoking and Tobacco Essaypilot

Tacoma is an urban port city in Washington with a population of about 198, 397 populated with 4,181 persons per square mile according to the census of 2010. Their median age is 35.7, about 44.43% of people in Tacoma are married and about 15.18% are separated. Their average household has a size of 3 people. 60 percent of the persons residing in Tacoma are white, 10 percent are black, about 9 percent is made up of Native Americans and the rest define themselves as others. Tacoma serves as the business center in the South Sound region (Johnston Miech, 2016). When discussing the cultural beliefs and practices among African Americans this is people whose social cultures roots are based on their experience in America though they are African descent. Simply, their culture reflects that of Americans. Their social structure is usually extended so as to comprise non-related family members with the father and mother as the decision makers. Elders are cared highly respected and cared for by their children. Most of the African Americans reside in low-income neighborhoods (Hitsman, 2016). There is the profusion of fast foods, the foods are highly priced and the reduced access to healthy foods has led to health disparities among them. It contributes to obesity and chronic diseases. They have strong religion relationships. Many churches try to maintain good health among their members. Understanding the African Americans cultural and beliefs allow care providers to quickly build connection and make sure efficient health care is given. In order to reduce health disparities among African Americans, the efforts established must address the health of individuals physically, emotionally and even spiritually. Moreover, creating effective communication between caregivers and patients is important as well as recognizing the communitys conditions. It is also advisable one gets to know his/her patient at an individual level since not all patients follow commonly identified cultural behaviors and customs. This information is important in my clinical prevention project because it will guide me in caregiving to my patients. I will be able to relate my treatments with my patients cultural beliefs. Cigarette smoking among low-income, less-educated and less-served African Americans has become a serious public health problem. Use of tobacco has been identified as a major cause of preventable illness and premature death (Hitsman, 2016). This inconsistency is of great worry as death due to tobacco smoking can easily be prevented. Cigarette smoking has been associated with coronary heart diseases, lung illnesses, the cause of various cancers such as bladder, stomach, and other parts of the body and asthma. Tobacco use and cigarette smoking among African American youths are much less than the whites youth. However, that should not mean to encourage the activity since the number and the effects in the community are not positive. Unfortunately, these youths enter early adulthood with the increased number of them smoking tobacco. The number increases with increase in age. The use of tobacco African American adults is nearly the same number as that of the whites. Rendering to National Health Interview survey in the year 2015 shows that approximately 16 percent of African Americans are tobacco smokers. African Americans due to their continued use of tobacco and cigarette smoking tend to be exposed to terrific ill health and impermanence. This is regardless of them smoking fewer cigarettes daily and some start smoking at an older age. They are likely not to cease smoking thus exposed to the effects for an extended era of their life. Smoking is a leading cause of several cancers in our body parts (Hitsman, 2016). They include stomach cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer and colorectal cancer. Smoking is evidently accountable for nearly 88 percent of deaths due to lung cancer, which has affected a greater number of African Americans. Smoking also is a cause for heart diseases, stroke, chronic bronchitis, gastric ulcers, and emphysema.A study done showed that the frequency of cigarette smoking is at 40% of total population of Tacoma, men at 59 percent and women at about 41 percent. Adults having a meaningfully higher frequency than those aged below 22 years old (Johnston Miech, 2016). A higher percentage of participants in the study do not have high school education and older participants according to age smoking increased the number of cigarettes daily. It was also discovered that African American tend to initiate the use of tobacco at a younger age which would not be surprising since Tobacco manufacturers are advertising their product more among African Americans. The intended audiences for the results of the study were African Americans aged between 18 years old and 55 years old. The message source was from a research made where a sample of participants was chosen from African Americans residing in Tacoma, Washington. Participants were asked for their demographic individualities such as age, education level and family income annually (Johnston Miech, 2016). They were also asked if they smoked how often they smoked and averagely how to make cigarettes daily. I believe the source is sufficiently credible. This is because the participants in the study were from the intended audience that is African Americans in Tacoma. The participants were also picked at the given range of ages. The study done has shown the unpleasant outcomes of smoking cigarettes and tobacco use among youths, adults either in their early youth-hood or late adulthood. The recommended action to reduce the deaths and negative effects of the use of tobacco and cigarette smoking is first to reduce as much as possible the contact of this substance with the group in the study (Hitsman, 2016). The tobacco manufacturers should stop taking advantage of African Americans by advertising the use of tobacco to them aggressively. The African Americans should also be educated on the negative effects of continued use of these substances. Initiating use of tobacco at an early age should also be discouraged. Caregivers are also advised to screen for use of tobacco and advice on users to quit.Some of the threats we are trying to avoid are extinct of African Americans in our societies. Smoking is the leading cause of cancer. Lung cancer a deadly illness is among them, cancers of stomach, mouth, larynx, pancreas, liver, kidney and even uterine cervix, Others being stroke and heart disease all resulting from the use of tobacco and smoking cigarette. The non-smokers are also affected because they smoke indirectly from inhaled air (Hitsman, 2016). This can cause sudden infant death syndrome, respiratory diseases as well as severe asthma attacks in kids. The medium through which this message is delivered is seemingly appropriate. It is delivered through media platforms. Recently almost every person has access to smartphones through which they can access the internet. Nevertheless, they should avoid bulk information which appears boring. An alternative way of passing the information should be looked for. The message is culturally appropriate to the group since even our culture doesnt allow substance misuse. There is a good number of African Americans who do not find its use appropriate. The method used to analyze the data was statistical program Stata that is Stata Corp, College Station TX, 2003. The campaign against the use of tobacco and smoking of cigarettes seem to be losing the use of these substances is still persisting. The effects of continued use these substances are openly seen. The effects are not pleasant at all. From an early age, youths opt to be educated on the effects of misuse of these substances. These will make awareness to them so as even in their older age they wont use these substances. Deaths due to cancer caused by smoking cigarette and use of tobacco are preventable and every person should heed to campaign against the use of these substances. References Maine Health: A Guide to Creating and Evaluating Patient Materials available at: http://www.mainehealth.org/workfiles/MH_LRC/MH_Print%20Guidelines_Intranet.pdf This reference provides several different methods of assessing readability. Readability Tool13(1).pdf AHRQ Health Literacy Universal Precautions Toolkit available at: http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-patient-safety/quality-resources/tools/literacy-toolkit/healthliteracytoolkit.pdf National Center for Cultural Competence (NCCC): Choosing Adapting Health Promotion Materials available at: http://nccc.georgetown.edu/documents/Materials_Guide.pdf Hitsman, B. (2016). A new blueprint for addressing tobacco use disparities to reduce health disparities: the sociopharmacology theory of tobacco addiction.World Health Organization. (2015). Fact sheet on ingredients in tobacco products.Johnston, L. D., OMalley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., Miech, R. A. (2016). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2015: Volume II, college students and adults ages 19-55.(Hitsman, 2016)